Cheese slices with virtually no cheese; fruit yoghurt without actual fruit; salt and vinegar crisps without real potato – or even vinegar.

Looking closely at what goes into everyday foods can be eye-opening. And as our photos here show, even bread can have a surprising number of artificial ingredients. But does it matter?

This is a controversial issue, and at the heart of this lies ultra-processed foods (UPFs). From mass-produced bread to crisps and breakfast cereals, these are typically highly processed, with chemicals many of us would struggle to pronounce.

UPFs are now rarely out of the headlines, increasingly linked to health problems. Indeed a review last year by Australian researchers, based on data from nearly ten million people, identified 32 health risks linked to UPFs, including heart disease, type 2 diabetes, depression and early death from any cause. Previous studies suggested UPFs raise the risk of dementia and some cancers.

Yet we can’t seem to get enough of them. Recent estimates suggest UPFs constitute more than half of the UK population’s total calorie intake.

However, not all UPFs are equal in terms of health risks, according to a study by University College London last year. Some experts sat part of the problem is that what constitutes a UPF is not universally agreed.

‘What a UPF is and what that means for our health has never been scientifically explained,’ says Weili Li, a professor in food science at University of Chester.

‘All food is processed food to some degree and there are many different ways this can be done. And not all processing or additives are harmful,’ adds Professor Li, who works with food manufacturers and researches ways to improve nutritional value of food.

Sian Porter, a dietitian and spokesman for the British Dietetic Association (which has previously partnered with food manufacturers), is among those who argue ‘much of the evidence linking UPFs with serious health conditions fails to identify clear cause and effect’.

However, this argument is robustly dismissed by experts such as Dr Chris van Tulleken, who has pointed out ‘we have never truly proved cause-and-effect when it comes to cigarettes and cancer’, either.

Ever wondered what's really inside your favourite food? From the packaging to the ingredients, we're breaking it down one bite at a time

There’s little doubt most UPFs are designed to be hyper-palatable (easier to eat), which encourages overconsumption, adds dietitian Nichola Ludlam-Raine, author of How Not to Eat Ultra-Processed. ‘That in itself can lead to health problems linked with obesity.’

Many UPFs are also often low in protein and fibre and lack vital vitamins and beneficial plant compounds.

And the debate is moving on, as evidence now suggests ‘the problem doesn’t necessarily lie with individual ingredients on a molecular level, but it’s the mix of additives, together with the processing, that creates products with potential health risks’, says Ms Ludlam-Raine.

Just last week a study in France identified two combinations of food additives that could raise the risk of type 2 diabetes, reported the journal Plos Medicine.

One mixture combines emulsifiers, added to foods to bind ingredients (such as modified starches, pectin, guar gum, carrageenans, polyphosphates and xanthan gum), a preservative (potassium sorbate) and a colouring agent (curcumin). This mix is found in stocks, milky desserts, fats and sauces, the researchers said.

The second mixture consists of additives found in artificially sweetened drinks: acidifiers (citric acid, phosphoric acid), colourings (caramel, anthocyanins), sweeteners (acesulfame-k, aspartame), emulsifiers (gum arabic, pectin) and a coating agent (carnauba wax). How these combinations might raise diabetes risk is still to be investigated.

Meanwhile, mindful of the concerns about UPFs, some food manufacturers are finding ways to reduce additives and processing.

For example, M&S has launched an ‘Only… Ingredients’ range, which contains no more than six components. The cornflakes contain one ingredient: corn.

But do these steps make the product healthier? ‘Not necessarily,’ says Nichola Ludlam-Raine.

‘It’s about what you’re not eating here. Breakfast cereals should ideally be rich in fibre, or be fortified with iron and B vitamins such as folic – these aren’t.’

To help you see what really goes into your food, we examined some of the most popular UPFs, and sourced what was listed on their ingredients lists (if not exact products, similar) – and asked experts to explain why these are there... and when we should worry.

HOVIS MEDIUM SOFT WHITE BREAD

Wheat flour (with added calcium, iron, niacin, thiamin), water, yeast, salt, soya flour, preservative: E282, emulsifiers: E472e, E471, E481; rapeseed oil, flour treatment agent: ascorbic acid (vitamin C).

There are 11 ingredients in this soft white bread from Hovis

And rapeseed oil is often refined in a way which may form some harmful trans fats that contribute to inflammation

You might recognise six of the 11 ingredients here as food. Sian Porter suggests we don’t need to worry about E-numbers as all food additives are identified by an E-number, including those which occur naturally, such as vitamin C (E300) – ‘it’s just shorthand, seeing E-numbers shouldn’t automatically cause concern’.

The E282 in this bread is a mould inhibitor and helps extend its shelf-life, says Mike Saltmarsh, previously managing director at Inglehurst Foods, who edited the Essential Guide to Food Additives.

(While some mould is harmless, others cause tummy upset or can produce mycotoxins, which can be toxic to the liver and kidneys.)

While safe to consume, in some people E282 may cause digestive discomfort, and a recent study suggested it could disrupt gut bacteria.

E471 is ‘one of the most commonly used additives’, adds Mike Saltmarsh. ‘It’s basically a fat that’s been modified to help it interact between fat and water [to help them blend properly].

‘It was also discovered that if we react this chemical with lactic or acetic acid it makes a molecule that helps make a springier loaf.’

Without additives, people who have allergies or intolerances would find it difficult to eat a normal diet, adds Nichola Ludlam-Raine.

‘Gluten, for example, is an important protein that keeps things together – but obviously people with coeliac disease can’t have it. Thanks to a combination of certain additives that replicate its properties, they can still eat normal food.’

Mike Saltmarsh says during product development, ‘we often add a bit of something and see if it makes things better – but due to time pressure, we rarely go back and take things out to see if it changes the final result,’ admitting: ‘When I see a long ingredients list, I sometimes wonder whether some are unnecessary.’

Rapeseed oil helps keep the bread soft and moist, while providing omega-3 and omega-6 fats that support heart health – but rapeseed oil isn’t as good for your health as (extra-virgin) olive oil, says Nichola Ludlam-Raine.

For example, some commercial rapeseed oils undergoes high heat and chemical extraction, which may form some harmful trans fats that contribute to inflammation.

The bottom line? ‘This is not the best choice of bread, as it’s made from refined flour, so is low in fibre, and the heavily processed nature means that it’s not very filling and easy to over consume,’ says Nichola Ludlam-Raine.

BIRDS EYE CRISPY CHICKEN DIPPERS

Chicken breast (50%), water, rapeseed oil, flour (wheat, maize), starch (pea, tapioca, maize, wheat), salt, raising agents (disodium diphosphates, sodium bicarbonate), dextrose, natural flavourings, colour (caramel), onion powder, white pepper, calcium carbonate, iron, niacin, thiamin

There are 21 listed ingredients in these BirdsEye chicken dippers - and even the meat will have been mechanically processed and blended with additives

For 22 dippers, a lot of ingredients are needed

Just nine of the 21 ingredients listed are recognisably food rather than chemical additives. The chicken will have been mechanically processed, then blended with water and additives so it can be shaped into dippers. Water, the second main ingredient helps mix the ingredients and maintains moisture.

The two flours and rapeseed oil help form the crisp coating, and the starches are used to bind the coating to the chicken and stop the batter being too runny.

‘It’s not inherently bad, but the addition of a coating means this is heavily processed – and the starches add empty carbs without much nutrition,’ says Nichola Ludlam-Raine.

The raising agents should be safe to consume, says Professor Li, ‘even if they sound like chemicals’.

‘But it’s possible that in years to come as the science develops we discover that some of these additives are more harmful than thought – there is never a 100 per cent guarantee.’

A diet high in phosphate compounds (like the raising agent here) has been linked to weaker bones and heart disease risk. But it’s unlikely to be harmful in tiny amounts found here, unless consumed excessively, says Nichola Ludlam-Raine.

Meanwhile, the dextrose, she says, is ‘a sugar that’s digested quickly so can raise blood glucose levels and doesn’t provide any nutrition’.

The ‘natural flavourings’ here are most likely to be extracts made from cooked chicken to boost meaty taste, or yeast and spices, says Mike Saltmarsh.

Manufacturers don’t have to set out what wholesome-sounding ‘natural flavourings’ are, as Sian Porter explains: ‘These fall under the Compound Ingredient Exemption set by the Food Standards Agency, which says manufacturers do not need to list the specific components of an individual ingredient if it makes up less than 2 per cent of the overall product’.

The caramel colouring here is one of the most common used in food and drink manufacturing.

Onion powder and white pepper are used as seasonings which, ‘while good for us as they’re derived from plants, won’t be present in large amounts here to make a difference to overall health’, says Nichola Ludlam-Raine.

FRUBES STRAWBERRY FLAVOUR YOGURT TUBES

Yoghurt (milk), sugar 6.1%, modified manioc and maize starch, calcium citrate, natural flavourings (milk), stabiliser: guar gum, acidity regulator: citric acid, vitamin D

There are eight ingredients in these strawberry Frubes

...But potentially no actual strawberries

You might think this contains strawberries but it’s actually got strawberry ‘flavour’ – and, as with the chicken dippers, the ‘natural flavouring’ doesn’t have to be identified, as it makes up less than 2 per cent of the product.

In fact here, the milk provides the main flavour – it’s possible that there are also fruit extracts (though not necessarily strawberries) that have strawberry-like flavour, says Mike Saltmarsh.

‘Calcium citrate also adds slight acidity which helps create a strawberry-like taste without using actual strawberries [which would add to the cost and reduce shelf-life],’ he says.

The milk provides protein and calcium (for stronger teeth), says Nichola Ludlam-Raine. But sugar is the second ingredient here – there’s almost 4g in each tube.

Nichola Ludlam-Raine says: ‘Most of this sugar is naturally occurring from the milk (lactose), but nutrition labels don’t differentiate between the sugars added and those there already.

‘But I’ve spoken to yoghurt manufacturers in the past who’ve made plain yoghurts for children and then had to pull them from the market as children simply won’t eat them.’

As for the starch, this with the calcium stops the milk flocculating (clumping together), adds Mike Saltmarsh.

Some people with IBS may experience bloating if they have difficulty digesting certain starches.

Just two of the nine ingredients in this are recognisably food.

RIBENA CONCENTRATE BLACKCURRANT: NO ADDED SUGAR

Water, blackcurrant juice from concentrate (18%), acids (malic acid, citric acid), acidity regulator (sodium gluconate), extracts of carrot and hibiscus, vitamin C, sweeteners (aspartame, acesulfame K), natural flavourings, preservative (potassium sorbate, sodium bisulphite)

There are 13 ingredients in Ribena, with natural colours but some artificial sweeteners

Three widely used sweeteners – sucralose, aspartame and acesulfame K – appear to be more problematic

Only two out of the 13 ingredients here are recognisable.

‘Extracts of carrots and hibiscus are added for colour – only natural colours are used nowadays, after the use of artificial colourings was stopped almost overnight following a 2007 University of Southampton study linking artificial colours to hyperactivity in children – although that was controversial,’ says Mike Saltmarsh.

The acids enhance the tartness of the berry flavour, while the sodium gluconate ensures the product has a consistent taste, as it regulates the acidity. Both additives also help keep the pH low, which inhibits microbial growth and prolongs the shelf-life.

This is obviously not meant to be a very nutritious product, says Nichola Ludlam-Raine, but the main issues are the acids, from a dental health point of view – and the artificial sweeteners.

A large 2023 study by Harvard University linked artificial sweeteners with an increased risk of cardiovascular problems, including heart attacks.

Three widely used sweeteners – sucralose, aspartame and acesulfame K – appear to be more problematic. One theory is in large amounts they cause inflammation that affects blood vessels and the balance of gut bacteria (but more research is needed).

‘It comes down to it’s the dose that makes the poison – studies suggesting a risk are often animal studies and in much higher amounts than in any of these products,’ says Sian Porter.

However, sweeteners have been shown to encourage sweet tastes – so the argument is that this makes people want to consume other sweet foods, she adds.

‘So there’s a need to reduce our intake of all sugars and artificial sweeteners for this reason.’

PRINGLES SALT & VINEGAR SHARING CRISPS

Dehydrated potatoes, sunflower oil, wheat flour, corn flour, rice flour, salt and vinegar seasoning (flavourings {barley}, potato starch, lactose {milk}, maltodextrin, flavour enhancers {monosodium glutamate, disodium guanylate, disodium inosinate}, salt, acids {citric acid, malic acid}, sunflower oil), maltodextrin, emulsifier (E471), salt, colour (annatto norbixin)

There are 15 ingredients in a can of Pringles - with no vinegar and the chip consisting of more of a 'dough' than a crisp

As well as no real potato, this salt and vinegar snack contains no vinegar – the ‘vinegar seasoning’ mimics the flavour. ‘Colour’ give the crisp its yellow hue

‘This is quite a long way from a potato crisp which would just be potato, oil and seasoning,’ says Sian Porter. Its base is closer to a dough.

Using dehydrated potato flakes and potato powder means the manufacturer can create a consistent shape and texture, ‘so every Pringle is identical in size and shape’, explains Mike Saltmarsh.

The flours which, along with the sunflower oil and salt, are arguably the only ingredients here recognisable as ‘food’ – are used to bulk up the structure.

As well as no real potato, this salt and vinegar snack contains no vinegar – the ‘vinegar seasoning’ mimics the flavour. ‘Colour’ give the crisp its yellow hue.

As for the monosodium glutamate (MSG), this is added to many packaged foods for a rich, savoury flavour.

‘There are lots of misconceptions over MSG but it’s in many products, including Bovril stock cubes and powdered soups, says Mike Saltmarsh.

‘It increases perceived meatiness. The inosinate and guanylate here work together to enhance flavour, too.’

Sian Porter adds: ‘MSG is generally safe in levels added to food, but some people are sensitive to it, causing nausea, flushing or headaches – but the bigger issue is that MSG is often found in foods that contain high amounts of salt, saturated fat and sugar.’

If it is on the label, see if you can recreate the food at home, she says. ‘You could cut potato thinly, bake in the oven and add flavourings such as paprika – and no MSG or colourings – to make a similar snack to this.’

E471 – used here to combine the various ingredients and maintain the dough-like base – is standard, says Nichola Ludlam-Raine.

‘Other emulsifiers have been linked with inflammation in the gut in rodent studies – though not the ones here.’

The maltodextrin – a highly processed carb – acts as a filler; provides a slight sweetness and improves the texture, says Mike Saltmarsh. However, it has a very high glycaemic index, meaning it causes blood sugar spikes (more than table sugar), adds Nichola Ludlam-Raine.

Animal and lab studies have also suggested maltodextrin may disrupt gut bacteria and can contribute to inflammation.

DAIRYLEA CHEESE SLICES

Skimmed milk (water, skimmed milk powder), cheese, skimmed milk powder, milk proteins, milk fat, inulin, modified starch, emulsifying salts (sodium phosphates, triphosphates, polyphosphates, sodium citrates), whey powder (from milk), calcium phosphates, acidity regulator (lactic acid), salt.

Dairylea cheese slices contain 12 ingredients - and only one of those is cheese

Some research raises concerns about emulsifiers and sweeteners - such as those used in Dairylea cheese slices

With a traditional cheese, you might expect to find milk, salt and a starter culture of bacteria. But the slices are made with four different milk-derived components – plus milk and, surprisingly, added cheese.

Mike Saltmarsh explains the milk powder improves texture and shelf-life, while the additional milk protein and milk fats make it creamy.

‘For reasons that are beyond me, it can often be cheaper to buy the components of milk than it is to buy the product as a whole,’ he says. ‘But it may also be necessary to use components as they need them in different proportions from the way they are in milk.’

Inulin – a type of fibre – and starch are added to improve the texture by adding bulk.

‘The emulsifying salts help make a smooth product – without them, the milk proteins would clump together and stay like that when dried,’ says Mike Saltmarsh.

While some research raises concerns about emulsifiers and sweeteners, this is mainly derived from rodents given much higher doses, says Nichola Ludlam-Raine.

‘The safety limit for sweeteners in food is set to 100x less than the smallest amount that might cause health concerns. Nevertheless, Babybel or cheddar chunks would be better choices as they contain fewer additives.’

And here's what's in these other everyday foods...

Dr Oetker Ristorante Gluten Free Mozzarella Pizza

Dr Oetker Ristorante Gluten Free Mozzarella Pizza 

Blend of mozzarella and edam cheese (25%), tomato puree, water, rice flour, potato starch, 8% cherry tomatoes, potato flakes, vegetable oils (rapeseed, extra virgin olive oil), pea protein, yeast, sugar, basil, salt, thickeners (hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose, xanthan gum), emulsifiers (lactic acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids, acetic acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids, mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids), spinach, parsley, modified starch, glucose syrup, garlic, milk proteins, spices, dextrose, oregano, lemon juice.

Linda McCartney's Vegetarian Sausages

Linda McCartney's Vegetarian Sausages  

Rehydrated textured soya protein (52%), water, rapeseed oil, soya protein concentrate, seasoning (sulphites) (dextrose, flavourings, salt, onion powder, yeast extract, colour: red iron oxide), fortified wheat flour (wheat flour, calcium carbonate, iron, niacin, thiamin), bamboo fibre, stabiliser: methyl cellulose, tomato puree, salt, raising agent: ammonium carbonates. 

Young's Breaded Cod Fillets

Young's Breaded Cod Fillets

Cod fillet (50%) (fish), wheat flour [wheat flour, calcium carbonate, iron, niacin (B3), thiamin (B1)], water, sunflower oil, rapeseed oil, wheat starch, palm oil, sea salt, mustard flour, yeast, raising agents: diphosphates, sodium bicarbonate, salt, yeast extract.

Nestle Multigrain Cheerios Cereal

Nestle Multigrain Cheerios Cereal

Wholegrain oat flour (31.9%), wholegrain wheat flour (29.6%), wholegrain barley flour (18.2%), sugar, wheat flour (contains calcium carbonate, vitamin B3, iron, vitamin B1), invert sugar syrup, calcium carbonate, contains sunflower oil and/or palm oil, molasses, salt, caramelised sugar syrup, colours: carotene, annatto norbixin; antioxidant: tocopherols, iron, vitamin C, B3, B5, B9, D, B6, B2.